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	Archives Introduction to Israel The Rev. Dr. A. Vanlier Hunter, Jr. CONTENTS Beersheba Bethlehem Capernaum City of David Emmaus Herod the Great Holy Sepulchre Jericho Temple Mount Beersheba "From Dan to Beersheba" -- the outer limits of Israel. The "Negev" in biblical times was the area around Beer-sheba. The Negev did not extend further south. Abraham and Abimelech of Gerar settled their dispute of the well at Beersheba with a covenant (Gn 21:25-33). Abraham lived there at one time (Gn 22:19). Isaac also concluded a covenant with Abimelech of the Philistines there in a duplicate story (Gn 26:15-33). The name is explained as "well of the oath" or "well of the sev-en" (both in Gn 21:30-31). Jacob offered sacrifice to Yahweh there and was told to go to Egypt (Gn 46:1-7). Beersheba was part of Simeon that was absorbed into Judah (Josh 19:2; 15:28). Samuel's sons Joel and Abijah were judges there, but became corrupt (I Sam 8:2). Not until David did Israel gain real control over the area. Beersheba is not well attested in later literature. Amos reproaches it (5:5; 8:14). Tell es-saba (Tell Beersheba) Excavated in the 1960s and then 1969-75 by Aharoni. Besides some Chalcolithic remains, nine levels: IX & VIII -- 13-11th century BCE -- unfortified village VII -- fortified in 2nd half of 11th century perhaps by Saul in his fighting with southern peoples (I Sam 14:48; 15:2-9) VI -- end of 11th century V -- 10th century -- massive wall (12' wide with artificial ramp and moat, large gate with guardrooms and towers). Either David or more likely Solomon. IV -- Walls continued, end of 10th century. Destroyed by Shishak ca. 920 BCE. III -- New walls built (casemate) mid-9th or early 8th C. A narrow gate and no towers. II -- wall continued. A royal store city -- 8th century built by Hezekiah. In the stratum were found in store-houses the reused stones of the large horned altar, part of Hezekiah's reform (II Kgs 18:4) Destroyed by Sen-nacherib in 701 BCE. I -- isolated fortresses on mound, the latest being Roman of the 2nd-3rd century CE. Where was patriarchal Beersheba? Some have found support from the late origin of the patriarchal narratives in the lack of any MB or LB remains at Tell Beersheba (van Seters, Thompson). Others pos-tulate that this tell was the site of an administrative center or the Judean kings, not a regular city. Thus the patriarchal Beersheba may be located where present Beersheba is. Under the area of the market there are some Iron Age tombs and Byzantine remains. Perhaps below them are some MB and LS remains, but nothing in the area has as yet been excavated or come to light. Return to Contents Bethlehem Bethlehem is first mentioned in extrabiblical sources in the Amarna letters of the 14th century BCE. The name Beth "Lehem" probably refers the house/temple of a Canaanite or local deity named "Laham." The later "House of Bread" is a popular name etiology. Today Bethlehem has about 25,000 inhabitants, of whom about 10,000 are Christian. Biblical References -- place of the death and burial of Rachel, who died at the birth of Benjamin (Gn 35:17) -- the story of Ruth and Boaz -- the home of Jesse and David (I Sm 16) -- the birthplace of a new ruler in Micah 5:2 (1) -- home of Joseph and Mary, birth of Jesus, visit of the wise men (Matt 2) After the Bar Kochba revolt, the site venerated by early Christians became a grove of Tammuz. Hadrian in 135 CE erected a shrine to Adonis over the grotto. Justin Martyr in 155 speaks of the birthplace as a cave for the first time. Constantine authorized a church at the site, which was dedicated in 339. It had an arcaded atrium, located in the present outside courtyard, a five-aisle nave, and an octagonal sanctuary over the grotto. The mosaic floor of this building can be seen two feet below the present floor level. The octagonal sanctuary is evi-denced in the "ichthous" mosaic in the left transept. During the Samaritan uprising in 529, the church was badly damaged. St. Sabas of the nearby monastery went to Constantinople and appealed to Justinian (527-565), who authorized a new church ca. 530. The new church omitted the atrium but added a narthex and lengthened the five-aisle nave by one bay. The sanc-tuary was made triapsidal instead of octagonal. This church remains almost intact today. In the Persian invasion of 614, the church was spared because the invaders saw the mosaic of the magi in Persian dress on the facade. With the Muslim invasion, Omar visited Bethlehem and promised that the Muslims would pray there only individually without assembly or muezzin. They used the south transept, where a prayer niche (mihrab) was installed. Especially at Christmas time, Christians and Muslims were both present in the church. Because of this Muslim use of the church, Hakim spared the church in 1009. The church was taken quickly by Tancred and the Cru-saders before the Muslims could react and before Jerusalem was taken. Crusader kings were crowned there -- Baldwin I in 1100 and Baldwin II in 1122. During the Mamluk period the church fell into disrepair and pillage. Even more so in the Ottoman period, when much marble was taken to Jerusalem for the Haram esh-Sharif. The Franciscans were given custody of the bascilica in 1347. But there was fighting between the Greeks and Latins in the 17th and 18th centuries. In 1757 the Greeks were given the Basilica by the Ottomans. The Armenians won the north transept by 1829. In 1847, the star of 1717 with a Latin inscription disappeared from the altar of the Nativity. The Status Quo of 1852 would seem to have left the grotto in Greek hands, but a new Franciscan star was allowed to be installed in 1853. The Crimean War of 1854-6 between Russia (the Greek Orthodox protector) and France (The Latin Church pro-tector) was partly fought over this star, which seems to give the Nativity altar to the Franciscans. Since 1873 when there was vicious fighting in the grotto, police have been stationed there. The interior was decorted during the Crusader remod-elling by Ephraim in 1169. All of the walls had mosaics. South side of the nave: The decrees of the seven ecu-menical councils (A--Nicea, 325; B--Constantinople, 381; C--Ephesus, 431; D--Chalcedon, 451; E--Con-stantinople, 553; F--Constantinople, 680; and G--Nicea, 787). Portions of B and F are visible. Also the genealogy of Jesus according to Matt 1 is on the bottom of the south side: Jacobus, Matthan, Eleazer, Eliud, Achim, Sadok, Azor. North side of the nave: The six provincial councils (Ancyra, 314; Antioch, 272; Sardicat, 347; Gangus, 4th century; Laodicea, 4th century; Carthage, 254), Antioch and Sardica are partly preserved. The genealogy of Lk 3 was on the bottom of the north side of the nave. There were angels between the windows at the top. The artist of these mosaics, Basilius Proctor, is written with the syllables one above the other at the foot of the third angel from the right on the north wall. Saints are depicted on the columns in the nave. The north transept (Armenian) has the Altar of the Cir-cumcision. The south transept has the Altar of the Three Kings, commemorating where they dismounted. Return to Contents Capernaum Hebrew: Kefar Nahum. NT has both kapharnaoum and kapernaoum. Josephus: kapharnaoum. Perhaps "caphar-naum" is to be prefered, but Protestants have traditionally used "Capernaum." The place was later called Tanhum because of the burial of Rabbi Tanhum there. The Bedouin then called it Tal-hum and travelers understood Tell Hum. Excavations from 1968-1984 by Franciscans Virgilio Corbo and Stanislao Loffreda. New excavations have started in the Greek Orthodox sector in 1987. As a district, Capernaum controled about 8 kms of the shoreline. Taxes were collected at some point (Matthew/ Levi was a tax collector), since it was the last town of Galilee before crossing over the Jordan to Gaulanitis. In-come was from fishing, farming, and manufacture (basalt equipment: presses and mills). Occupation history: 5th century BCE -- Persian period settlement Late Hellenistic-Roman-syzantine town Omayyad Period -- decline and abandonment in the Abassid period Some structures dated to the 12th-13th century During the first four centuries CE, Capernaum had both "orthodox" Jews and "minim" (heretics = Christian Jews). By the mid-5th century the Christian population was largely Gentile. In the Arab period many Muslims occu-pied the town, since the synagogue and church were abandoned. Date of the Synagogue Israelis -- late 2nd/early 3rd century CE Elaborate external decoration and slab, non-mosaic inside floor (4-6th C. synagogues had more sober exteriors and lavish mosaic floors) Unlikely that such an impressive synagogue would have been built in Byzantine times so close to the more modest Church of Peter's House. Coins found are an intrusion under the floor. Franciscans -- late 4th/early 5th century CE Coins with late dates are in situ in stratified level under the synagogue. Requires a reinvestigation of synagogue architectural styles and features. Requires a reinvestigation of the relationship between Christians and Jews in Capernaum in the Byzantine period. -- Prayer hall built in late 4th century with east court added in mid-5th century -- The entire synagogue was abandoned during the 7th century at the latest. There is evidence that the present synagogue was built on the foundations of the 1st century CE synagogue, the one built by the Roman centurion and visited by Jesus. The street on the west side and the basalt foundation are from the 1st century. The Insula Sacra Built as a domestic dwelling in the late Hellenistic period: ca. 25' sq. with outer courtyard. In the late 1st century CE it was transformed from a residence to a small public building, a domus-ecclesia. There are no household utensils from this period, but a plastered floor and walls with Christian graffiti (crosses, even symbols of Jesus Christ). In the 4th century the house church was enlarged (rooms added to the sides), an arch in the main room built to support a heavier roof, and the complex was set apart from the rest of the town by an enclosure wall. In second half of 5th century an octagonal church was built, with a (baptismal?) niche on the east side. The church remained in use until the 7th century and was then abandoned. Since this is the one place where a christian church was located in Capernaum, it is reasonable to assume that it was the site of Peter's house where Jesus stayed. Return to Contents City of David The little city is mentioned in the Execration Texts of the l9th century. It is presumed to be the site of Salem in the Melchizedek story of Gn 14. It is mentioned in the Amarna letters, when Abdi-Heba, king of Jerusalem, wrote for help from Akhenaton concerning the Habiru --14th century. It was not taken by Joshua (too insig-nificant). Called "Jebus" in Judg 19:10-11. Only in David's time did Israel take the city -- II Sam 5:6-9. The method of entry into the city is obscured by the word "tsinnor," usually translated "watershaft" and by the dating of Warrents shaft by Yigal Shiloh to the 10th century and not earlier. "Jerusalem" may mean "salem founded [the city]" -- referring to a Canaanite deity. David brought the ark from Kiriath-yearim (II Sam 6). It was within the walls in Herodian times, perhaps not in Late Roman times, but again in Byzantine times after Eudocia rebuilt the walls. It has been outside the walls since Arab times. There have been many excavations in various areas of the City of David, most notably Kathleen Kenyon (1961-7) and Yigal Shiloh (1978-85). Earlier Raymond Weill in 1913-14 and 1923-24 excavated the quarry and tombs (of the kings?). He postulated that the course of Hezekiah's tunnel was so circuitous to avoid going under the tombs of the kings above. Area G Kenyon found an 18th century. Jebusite wall down along the slope. It was in use through David's time. Another wall was built just uphill in the 8th century (Hezekiah), which served until 587/6. Nehemiah's wall was built more toward the crest of the hill, the same line that was followed in later Hasmonean-Byzantine times. LB II -- some small structures 10-9th century -- stepped stone structure to support public buildings. It covers and seals the Canaanite sup-port. 55' tall. 7-6th century -- Israelite house of Ahiel bullae house -- 51 bullae (41 legible) Gemaryahu, son of Shaphan, scribe of Jehoiakim (Jer 36:10-12, 25) burnt room -- from 587/6 destruction arrowheads on burnt floor 2nd-3rd century BCE to 70 CE -- Hasmonean and Roman walls & towers, following course of Nehemiah's walls Warren's shaft Discovered in 1867 by Charles Warren. It is a 130' tunnel with a 40' vertical shaft into the Gihon spring, partly carved and partly natural fissures. The entrance is above the Jebusite-Davidic wall. Most assume it is the "tsinnor" of II Sam 5:8, meaning watershaft, but lin-guistically that is not assured. Shiloh is convinced that the shaft was carved first in the 10th century only after David was king. Shiloah channel From Gihon there was a channel that ran south down the Kidron valley. In part is was an open channel and in part a tunnel, with "window" that allowed the water to irrigate the valley. Also 10-9th century in construction. Cf. Is 8:6; 7:3. Hezekiah's tunnel II Kgs 20:20 and II Chr 32:30 mention that Hezekiah was remembered for having built a water tunnel from Gihon into the lower city. The reference by the Assyrian emmissaries that the Jerusalemites might have to "drink urine" (II Kgs 18:27) may indicate how vulnerable the city's water supply was under siege. The tunnel was dug from both ends and is over 1,700' long (1,090' in a direct line), about 2' wide and ranging from 5' to 15' high (at the southern end). Its maximum depth below the city above is 150'. The drop from Gihon to Siloam is about 6'. The first Western scholars to crawl through the tunnel were Edward Robinson and Eli Smith in 1838. The inscription, which was located about 20 feet from the end of the tunnel at Siloam, was found by a boy bathing in 1880. The preserved part of the inscription (only on the bottom half of the smooth area) has about 50 words in 6 lines and describes the last moments of completing the tunnnel by the two crews who met in the middle. The inscription today is in Istanbul. Return to Contents Emmaus Emmaus is never mentioned in the Hebrew Bible and only once in the NT = Luke 24:13. Emmaus probably comes from a Hebrew word meaning "warm springs," so it would not be surprising to find more than one place given this name. There is perhaps evidence for two towns called Emmaus. a) An Emmaus is mentioned several times in I Maccabees and in Jospehus, and this Emmaus eventually became the syzantine location for the town where Jesus met Cleopas and the other. b) Another Emmaus is apparently mentioned once in Josephus. See below. Luke 24:13 locates Emmaus 60 stadia from Jerusalem. Most of the best texts have this measurement (Papyrus 75 [early 3rd century], Codex Vaticanus [4th century], Codex Alexandrinus [5th century], and Codex Bezae [5-6th century]), but a few have 160 stadia (codex Sinaiti-cus [4th century], and Eusebius and Jerome). A Roman "stadion" equals 607 feet (185 meters). 60 stadia would be about 6.9 miles (11 km); 160 would be about 18.4 miles (29.5 km). The superior textual evidence supports 60 stadia. Possible identifications: l. At Amwas near Latrun. I Maccabees 3:40, 57; 4:3 mentions an Emmaus "in the plain" where Judas attacked the forces of Syria and Philistia. Josephus reports that a few years later Bacchides fortified Emmaus and a half-dozen other places around Jerusalem (I Macc 9:50; Ant. 13.1,3 �15). [Bacchides was the governor of West Euphrates sent in 161 by the Seleucid king Demetrius I to quell the Maccabean revolt and install Alcimus as high priest. After the death of Nicanor, he returned and Judas died in a battle against him at Elasa in 160.] Jospehus also refers to this Emmaus as a village burned to the ground by Quintilius Varus (legate in Syria from 6-4 BCE) in revenge for the slaying of some Romans (Wars 2.4:3 �63; 2.5:1 �71; Antiquities 17.10:7 �282; 17.10:9 �291). The rebuilt town appears in a list of Roman toparchies in 66 CE (Wars 3.3:5 �55). The Fifth Legion camped here for two years before the final attack on Jerusalem in 70 CE (Wars 4.8:1 �444-5). The town is mentioned in the Mishnah as a place frequented by Jews in the early 2nd century CE (Kerithoth 3:7). In the 3rd century a soldier-diplomat Julius Africanus got permission to change the town's name to Nicopolis in 223. Both Eusebius and Jerome identify this place as the site of the Lukan scene with Cleopas and it became the undis-puted Byzantine site. The fact that this site is nearly 20 miles from Jerusalem probably gave rise to the textual variant of 160 stadia. It would be very difficult and unlikely to walk from Jerusalem to this Emmaus and back in one day. This Emmaus suffered a severe plague in 639. By the time the Crusaders arrived, there was no memory of the identification with Emmaus. The Crusader fortress here was for military purposes, even though they built a church over the remains of the Byzantine one, but ap-parently without knowing the tradition. 2. At Abu Ghosh. On the hill is the site of Kiriath-jearim, where the Ark of the Covenant rested for 20 years. The town moved down into the valley by the 2nd century CE, for a detachment of the Tenth Legion was stationed here at the site of a spring. The Crusaders apparently sought to identify Emmaus merely by measuring about 60 stadia from Jerusalem. The closest town was Riryat al-Enab. Here they built a fine church. [The town name changed in the early l9th century when a powerful Arab sheik Abu Ghosh levied taxes on travellers to Jerusalem.] 3. At Qubeiba. After Saladin defeated the Crusaders at the Horns of Hattin in 1187, the main route to Jerusalem changed and Riryat al-Enab lost its importance. Along the new route that went a little farther north and fol-lowed an old Roman road was a village called Parva Mahomeria that was built by the Canons of the Holy Sepulchre and became a way station for Christian trav-ellers. It had a small castle and a church. Toward the end of the Mamluk period (about 1500), Christians began to venerate the site (Arabic name: Qubeiba) as Emmaus. Probably they thought the Crusader church must com-memorate some event in Jesus' life and the distance from Jerusalem (about 7 miles) brought to mind Emmaus. 4. At Moza. Jospehus mentions another Emmaus that was much closer to Jerusalem. In Wars 7.6:6 �217. Josephus says Vespasian settled 800 veterans of the Roman army at a place called Emmaus, 30 stadia from Jerusalem. This must be a different place from the Emmaus-Nicopolis site. This new military colony soon dominated the site and the name was changed to Colonia, which has survived until recent times as the Arabic Qoloniyeh. This place is below Moza (Motza) at a sharp curve in the main road from Jerusalem. The distance of 60 stadia in Luke (if it is really accurate) could refer to the round-trip distance. There are Roman ruins even visible on the surface here today. Thus this site emerges as the most likely site for NT Emmaus, even though it has no Christian tradition behind it. It is in easy walking distance from Jerusalem and thus makes more sense than the Emmaus at Latrun, which is down at the end of the valley. Apparently the name Emmaus connected with Colonia was lost entirely, so that it was natural for the Byzantines to latch on to the much better known and strategically located Emmaus as the site for its commemoration of the Lukan post-resurrection story. Return to Contents Herod the Great Herod's family were Idumeans (OT Edomites). They were most likely forcibly converted to Judaism by John Hyr-canus (134-104). Herod's father was Antipater II, who was made governor of Judea in 55 BCE. His mother was Kypros [Cyrpus]. His older brother was Phasael. When Pompey was killed in Egypt, Julius Caesar went there to gain control. He had a love affair with Cleo-patra, but the Egyptian army besieged him. Antipater II sent help in 47 BCE and Caesar was saved. This was the beginning of certain privileges for the Jews, reaffirmed by Antony and Octavian. One favor to Antipater was that his son Herod was made governor of Galilee in 46 BCE. After Caesar's death, Herod joined and supported Cas-sius, who ruled the East. But a decisive battle at Philippi in 42 saw Antony and Octavian defeat and kill Brutus and Cassius. In 41 when Antony ruled the East, Phasael and Herod were appointed tetrarchs of Galilee. but the Parthians invaded in 40 BCE and Phasael was taken captive (and either killed or committed suicide). Herod narrowly es-caped with his family just southeast of Bethlehem. After an accident nearly killed his mother and Herod thought about suicide (near where he later would build Herodi-um), the family escaped to Masada. Herod went to Rome, where in 40 BCE he was named king of Judea by the Senate under the influence of Antony and Octavian. Herod fought for two years but was not able to secure his kingdom until Antony sent troops in 37. Jerusalem was taken, Antigonus (the Hasmonean high priest who had been declared king) was killed, and 45 members of the Sanhedrin loyal to the Hasmoneans were executed. Herod married the Hasmonean Mariamne and leased Jericho from Cleopatra, who had married Antony in 37 BCE. At the naval battle of Actium on Sept. 2, 31, Octavian met the navy of Cleopatra and Antony and defeated it. He then moved to Alexandria and took it, whereupon both Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Herod had attempted to help Cleopatra by subduing the Nabateans. Octavian called Herod to Rhodes, but Herod succeeded in defending himself. He also went to Egypt to congratu-late Octavian on taking Alexandria, whereupon Octavian gave Herod the sea coast and southern Transjordan. In 23, Augustus (Octavian's imperial name since 27) extended Herod's rule to include northern Transjordan. In 20 Herod met with Augustus in Syria and he was given the Huleh Valley. Now Herod ruled over all Palestine ex-cept the Decapolis. Only two personalities of note emerged during this time period in the entire Roman Empire apart from the Roman leaders themselves: 1. Cleopatra VII in Egypt (ca. 68-30 BCE), the last Ptolemaic ruler, from 50-30. 2. Herod the Great (ca. 65-4 BCE). Rome did not grant hereditary status to Herod's kingdom. He could recommend heirs in his will, but Rome decided. He could not have an independent foreign policy and had to pay tribute to Rome. But he was granted unlimited internal authority -- administrative, financial, judicial, and military. Royal Murders Herod was responsible for seven acts of murder: Antigonus in 37 BCE, the Hasmonean high priest and king who seized control from Herod from 40-37. When Herod appointed Hananel the Egyptian high priest, Alexandra, the Hasmonean queen mother, complained to Cleopatra. Herod then appointed Alexandra's 17-year-old son (and Herod's brother-in-law, Mariamne's brother) Aristobulus III, but in 36 BCE he had him drowned at Jericho. Before going to Rhodes to meet Octavian in 31, he killed the aged Hyrcanus II, Alexandra's father and his wife Mariamne's grandfather, who had been high priest from 76-69 and 63-41. The murders of her brother Aristobulus III and her grandfather Hyrcanus II angered Mariamne. Also tension was growing between Alexandra and Mariamne on the one hand, and Cyprus and Salome I, Herod's mother and younger sister, on the other hand. Herod had Mariamne accused of adultery and planning to poison him, and had her executed in 29 BCE. Herod went into a deep depression for a period after this time. When Alexandra tried to seize the citadel and gain control herself, she was put to death in 27. Mariamne's two sons by Herod, Alexander and Aristobulus IV, were educated in Rome and returned in 18/17. There followed a decade of intrigue. Finally, Herod tried them for plotting his death and he had them strangled at Sebaste in 7 BCE and buried at Alexandrium. Herod's oldest son, Antipater III, son of Doris the Idumean, seemed to be the likely heir, but may have plotted against Herod because of Herod's fondness for his other sons. Herod sent Antipater to Rome to be confirmed by the Senate, but discovered the plot. Augustus apparently consented to Herod's trial of Antipater, although he probably knew what the outcome would be. Herod had Antipater executed at Hyrcania just five days before he himself died at Jericho. Augustus is quoted as saying, "It is better to be a pig than a son of Herod." Herod had ten known wives and at least 15 children -- at least 8 of whom were boys, and 3 of whom he mur-dered. Return to Contents Holy Sepulchre The site was originally a stone quarry outside the walls of the city. The first wall may have followed a course from the citadel along David Street to the Triple Suq. Somewhere there was the Gannath Gate. The second wall then ran north along the Triple Suq and at some point went east to Antonia. The quarry was abandoned by the end of the 1st century BCE and some tombs were cut into the vertical surfaces of the quarry. The Romans may have used the site for public cruci-fixions, selecting a prominent rock in the old quarry. [The traditional Golgotha could even have been a partly quarried rock that was left because it cracked. This would explain the present crack in the rock attributed by tradition to the effects of the earthquake.] Perhaps Joseph of Arimathea had a tomb cut in the old quarry. All evidence points to this area for the site of the cruci-fixion and burial of Jesus. In 41-43 CE King Herod Agrippa I built a wall that most likely enclosed the area inside the city, but it was never built up much. The site was within the walls when Titus destroyed the city in 70 CE. It is conceivable that Christians visited the site in the late 1st and early 2nd century CE to commemorate the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus. When Hadrian decided to rebuild Jerusalem in 135 CE, it seems that he intentionally wanted to obliterate this Christian site, so he filled in the quarry to make a level base for his Capitoline temple to Jupiter over the tomb and a shrine to Aphrodite (Venus) over Golgotha/Calvary. When Constantine's mother Helena visited in 325, she was apparently told that these shrines of Hadrian marked the site of Jesus's death and burial. She even found the true cross in a cave/cistern in the area. When Constantine ordered the building of the church, he removed Hadrian's temple and constructed a totally new building between 327 and 335. [Did his workmen reuse any of the stone from Hadrian's shrines?] The church was built under the leadership of Marcarius, Bishop of Jerusalem, who died in 334. This church had its entrance on the east off the Cardo Maximus (from Zalatimo's Sweets north on Suq Khan ez-Zeit). Up the stairs from the Cardo was an atrium, then the basilica (martyrium) with four rows of columns and one apse. West of the basilica was an open peristyle garden/courtyard with the bare rock of Golgotha in the southeast corner. West of the garden was a circular church (rotunda) of the resurrection (anastasis) with the tomb in the center. The rock of the tomb chamber was removed so that only the slab remained. The Persians set the church on fire in 614, but it was restored very soon by Patriarch Modestus on the same plan as the Constantinian church. Jerusalem fell to the Muslims in 637, and Caliph Omar entered the city in 638. He was very tolerant of Chris-tianity, refusing to pray in the church when invited by Patriarch Sophorinus, lest Muslims would claim it as a mosque since Omar prayed there. To commemorate this act a mosque dedicated to Omar was built beside the church in 935. The Fatimid Caliph Hakim destroyed the church in 1009, including the edicule over the tomb. Funds were lacking to rebuild the entire church, so Emperor Constantine Monomachus had Patriarch Nicephorus rebuild only the rotunda and the courtyard in 1038. The basilica and atrium were not rebuilt. After the Crusaders took Jerusalem in 1099, they rebuilt the church in the 12th century (completed by 1149), refurbishing the Rotunda and adding a roof to the court-yard, making a kind of cruciform church, adding also an amulatory on the east side from which went various chapels and the steps down the St. Helena's Chapel and the Chapel of the Finding of the Cross. A double entrance was made on the south side leading into the outside courtyard. It is the crusader structure that sur-vives today. There were two Franciscan restorations in 1555 and 1719. Fire in 1808 badly damaged the Rotunda, including the 11th-century edicule. Since the Latin Church could not raise the money, the Greeks restored it, eliminating many Latin inscriptions and objects. A new stone edicule was built shortly thereafter. The Greek-restored copula began to give way in 1868, and some restoration work was carried out. The earthquake of 1927 weakened the church, and a fire in 1949 destroyed the roof. Some repairs have been made since 1958 but the scaffolding remains. The Status Quo of 1852 was a consequence of the infighting among the Christian groups. Visit to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre Courtyard On the left are the apses of three chapels: St. James (Greek Orthodox-Arab rite); St. John (with baptistry); Forty Martyrs. The bell tower, built in 1160-1180, was two stories taller but had to be lowered in 1719. On the right are three chapels: St. Abraham (Greek Orthodox Convent); St. John (Armenian); and St. Michael (Ethiopian). The courtyard has been the scene of Christian bloodshed. On Nov. 4, 1901, 15 Franciscans were wounded by Greek monks. Entrance The facade is from the Crusader church with the twin doors. The Crusader church also had an entrance to Calvary from the courtyard by going up the stairs on the right. But Saladin closed the right entrance and the en-trance to Calvary, the latter being later transformed into the Chapel of the Franks, now called the Chapel of Our Lady of Sorrows (Mary the Egyptian). Inside Upon entering, the bench on the left is for the two Mus-lim families who hold the keys to the Church. The stairs to the right lead up to Calvary. There are two chapels there: on the right, the Latin Chapel of the Crucifixion with modern mosaics, except for the fresco of the ascended Jesus on the ceiling. This is the 10th station (Jesus stripped of his clothes) and the 11th station (Jesus is nailed to the cross). Between the chapels one can see in a window the fissure in the rock, which tra-dition says was caused by the earthquake. Here also is the statue Stabat Mater Dolorosa (the Mother of Sor-rows stood) -- a gift from Portugal in 1778 (Greek Orthodox). It marks the 13th station (Jesus is taken down from the cross). The left chapel is the Greek Orthodox Chapel of the Cru-cifixion and the 12th station (Jesus dies on the cross). Through the hole in the silver disk under the altar one can touch the rock of Calvary. The black disks on either side mark the other two crosses. Downstairs, directly under these two chapels is the Greek Orthodox Chapel of Adam (again with a fissure in the rock). opposite are the graves of the first two cru-sader kings of the 1st Crusade: Godfrey de Bouillon (1100) and his brother Baldwin I. Going back to the entrance area, the Stone of Unction is the site of the anointing of Jesus' body with oils for burial. The present stone is from 1810. The wall behind the stone (and the corresponding wall on the other side of the Crusader Church) was built originally to support the arch cracked by the 1808 fire. Even though recent renovations made the walls unnec-essary, the Greeks built new ones to hang their pictures. Off to the left a circular iron cage marks the spot where the three women witnessed the crucifixion (Armenian). Rotunda The Rotunda of the Constantinian Church had an ambu-latory outside the pillars. Some of the external walls here are Constantinian. The Crusader Church erected walls to form small rooms there. Some of the reddish columns were originally single columns, now cut in half, either of Constantine's or even Hadrian's building. The sepulchre, or edicule (14th station -- Jesus is laid in the tomb) -- is l9th century, having replaced the ediface destroyed by fire in 1808, which in turn had replaced the 11th-century sepulchre, which in turn had replaced the Constantinian/Modestian facility destroyed by Hakim in 1009. The first chamber is the Chapel of the Angel and the inner chamber is the grave itself. Nothing is visible, since the supposed original slab is hidden by a marble slab. At the back of the edicule is the chapel of the Copts, a small shrine featuring the exposed rock of part of the sepulchre. Recent excavations have shown original material only on the north and south side of the edicule, so this material on the west is either from the Constantinian/Modestian or Monomachus edicule. Opposite the Coptic shrine is the entrance to the Syrian Orthodox (Jacobite) chapel. The basestone is one of the three Constantinian apses in the Rotunda. A door leads to several kokhim type tombs of the 1st century CE (Abbysinian), two of which are traditionally known as the tombs of Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus. The Church The nave of the Crusader church (Catholicon) has a huge chandelier, marking the navel of the earth (om-phalos). The Franciscan Chapel of the Apparition of Jesus to his Mother is to the north beyond a newer organ and the Latin Altar of Mary Magdalene on one of the pillars. In the Chapel is an early column and at the back outside some Constantinian or Hadrianic remains can be seen. The walkway on the north side of the Catholicon shows the merging of two buildings: a) the lighter 11th-century colonnade of the courtyard and b) the heavier 12th-century Crusader church. There is a Greek Orthodox Altar of the prison of Christ on the side. The chapels in the ambulatory of around the apse of the Catholicon are: St. Longinus, the soldier who pierced Jesus' side and/or the centurion who proclaimed Jesus the Son of God (Greek Orthodox). The dividing of the garments (Armenian). Steps down to the Armenian chapel of St. Helena with a mosaic of Armenia on the floor. The left altar is to St. Dismas, the good thief [the bad thief is named Gestas]. On the right side of St. Helena's Chapel stairs go down to the quarry/cistern where the "true" cross was found (Latin). These two chapels were originally under the martyrium/ basilica of Constantine's church and were accessible from the front of the church. Chapel of the Mocking (Greek Orthodox). Old steps leading up to Calvary and the largest look at the protuding stone of Golgotha. On the roof live the Abyssinian monks in a kind of African village. The monastery is called Deir es-Sultan.There one can see on the southern wall the ruins of the refectory of the monastery of the Canons of the Holy Sepulchre during the Crusader Period. Six Groups Claim Portions of the Holy Sepulchre: Latin Catholics (Franciscans) Greek Orthodox Armenian Orthodox Syrian Orthodox (Jacobites) Coptic Orthodox (Egyptian) Ethiopian Orthodox (Abyssinians) Two Muslim familes hold the keys to the building and unlock and lock it every day. Return to Contents Jericho One of the earliest settlements in the world and the low-est lying city on the face of the earth. Biblical References in the Hebrew Bible Joshua sent spies (Josh 2:1ff.) who stayed with Rahab the harlot, whose house was built into the city wall. The Israelites camped on the plain of Jericho (Josh 4:13) and then took it (Josh 6), sparing Rahab and family, with a curse on anyone rebuilding the city. The city was rebuilt by Hiel of Bethel during Ahab's reign, bearing the curse (I Kgs 16:34). Elijah was sent to Jericho before being taken up into heaven near there and the Jordan (II Kgs 2). Elisha purifies the water at Jericho (II Kgs 2:18-22). The city was resettled after the exile (Neh 3:2; 7:31). Tell es-Sultan Excavated by John Garstang (1930-36) and Kathleen Kenyon (1952-58). Garstang found a massive wall which he dated to the 15th century. This seemed to support the early date of the Exodus. But Kenyon showed that the wall was EB II and destroyed by 2300 BCE. Occupation levels: Natufian (10-8th millennium BCE) Possible cult place. Pre-pottery Neolithic A (8th mill.) 25' diameter tower (23' high with interior steps). The wall from 8300-7300 is evidence of the earliest city in the world. Pre-pottery Neolithic s (8-7th mill.) stone implements; plaster faces. Chalcolithic (5th mill.) people lived in pits. EB II (3rd mill.) -- 17 phases mud brick wall, major destruction (2300). MB I -- nomadic tombs; rebuilt mud brick wall. MB II -- retaining wall & glacis; destroyed about 1560 h. LB I -- (14th century) small unwalled settlement. Nothing from LB II or Iron I. Iron II -- (7th century) small settlement. Problem: How to reconcile the biblical historical portrait and the archaeological portrait? Hasmonean and Herodian Jericho The site Tulul abu el-Alaiq includes two artificial mounds, one north and one south of the Wadi Qelt. Building phases: John Hyrcanus (134-104) [or perhaps Jannaeus] probably built the first palace at the site, now under and to the west of the northern mound. It included two pools. Alexander Jannaeus (103-76) built an entire complex to the east of the northern mound with two large pools. Queen Salome Alexandra [Jannaeus' widow] (76-67) built two adjacent villas (the twin palaces) to accommodate her two rival sons Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II. Herod built 3 sucessive palaces: From 34-31 BCE he built a palace south of the wadi and west of the mound (282l x 150') -- excavation covered over; not visible today. After the earthquake of 31 BCE, he built a palace on the ruins of the old Hasmonean palace, including the northern artificial mound, which had a building on it. He combined the two pools of the mound into one and added an extension of the palace to the southeast (pool, bathhouse, etc.) Late in his reign he built a complex on both sides of the wadi. South was a sunken garden, a huge pool (295' x 130') and a round reception hall on the southern artifical mound. North of the wadi he built a grand palace with a reception hall (95' x 62'), two peristyle courtyards, Roman bath, etc. There is a large residential area to the north along with an industrial area with plantations. A cemetery runs along the foot of the hills for 10 kms to the north. A water system brought water from the hills into the city. This is the Jericho of Jesus' day with the story of Zacchaeus (Lk 19:1-10) and the blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-52; xt 20:29-34; Lk 18:3543). Tell es-Samrat Between Tulul abu el-Alaiq and Tell es-Sultan is a small mound. It was the location of a large building forming the back of a theater, which in turn formed one end of a hippodrome that extended to the south of the mound. Two Fortified Fortresses: The southern, higher, and larger mount is Tel el-Aqaba = Thrax of the Syrian Baccides in the Maccabean era. It was destroyed by Pompey in 63 BCE. Herod rebuilt it and called it Kypros, after his mother. The lower mount on the north side is Nuseib al-Aweishireh. Probably Taurus. Herod at Jericho: In 53 BCE Herod had the 17-year-old high priest Aristobulus III drowned in the large pool (the former Hasmonean double pool). He was his wife Mariamne's brother (both children of Alexandra, the daughter of Hyrcanus II). Herod killed his Son Antipater III there five days before he himself died there. He had just changed his will to divide his kingdom among Archelaus, Antipas, and Philip. Return to Contents Temple Mount Haram esh-Sharif (Noble Enclosure) The religious history of this site goes back to II Sam 24:18-25 when David bought the threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite and built an altar because of the theophany that occurred there ending the pestilence following David's census. It was at this site to the north of the City of David that Solomon built the temple ca. 960-950 BCE. The connection of this site with the Aqedah is based on the conflation of II Chr 3:1 and Gn 22:2, but the word "Moriah" in Gn 22:2 is probably secondary (textual prob-lem) and may have been influenced by Chr. The Chronicler does not make the connection between the binding of Isaac and the site of the temple. Solomon's temple was destroyed in 587/6 BCE. Zerub-babel built the Second Temple on the same site upon the return from the exile in 520-515. The Herod the Great built his elaborate temple (20-12 BCE) on a huge platform with colonaded stoas. Jospehus reports that Herod had to amass all the materials for the new building before the priests and people trusted him to alter the second Temple. Also priests were trained to do all the work of construction. Return to Contents Who We Are :: What We Do :: Events Calendar Clergy and Educators :: Scholars' Corner :: Newsletter Information Resources :: Get Involved :: Home
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